Landscape Architecture and Garden Design Journal

Identifying, Validating, and Prioritizing Environmental Factors Influencing Children’s Creativity: A Delphi–AHP Framework

saeedeh Labbafi iD , Mohtaramosadat Alavizadeh iD , Mohsen Kameli ^* iD

In urban and residential environments across Iran, spaces designated for children often lack the essential physical qualities needed to stimulate curiosity, imagination, and creativity. This deficiency stems from a prevalent focus on didactic approaches, the expansion of apartment living, and a diminishing connection with nature. This research was conducted with the objective of identifying, validating, and prioritizing environmental factors influencing children’s creativity, and subsequently developing a practical framework for designing child-centered spaces. The study employed a mixed-methods (qualitative-quantitative) survey approach. In the initial phase, a systematic literature review of 25 articles identified 68 preliminary factors, which were then categorized into five main criteria and 15 sub-criteria. Subsequently, factor validation was performed using a two-round Delphi method, followed by the calculation of weights through the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) based on the insights of 30 experts in architecture, urban planning, and educational psychology. The research instruments, after undergoing validation for face validity, demonstrated favorable reliability and internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha ranging from 0.706 to 0.802). The AHP findings, with a highly acceptable aggregate inconsistency ratio (“CR”=0.004), revealed the main criteria in order of priority as: Stimulation (weight 0.282), Naturalism (weight 0.254), Sociability and Interaction (weight 0.186), Flexibility (weight 0.145), and Calmness and Security (weight 0.132). Notably, the top two criteria accounted for over 53.6% of the total weight. Furthermore, the five highest-ranked sub-criteria—namely “Enchantment, Adventure, and Discovery,” “Play with Natural Elements,” “Spatial Functionality in Facilitating Social Interaction,” “Spatial Diversity,” and “Outdoor Natural Activities”—constituted 56.7% of the total aggregated weights. The Delphi results, indicated by a high Kendall’s W coefficient (W=0.746, p<0.001), signified strong expert consensus. Stability tests, including bootstrap analysis (1000 iterations), sensitivity analysis, and single-expert removal tests, confirmed the robustness of the decision-making structure and the convergence of the methodologies. The analytical conclusion of this research elucidates that the flourishing of children’s creativity is more dependent on fostering active engagement, lived experiences with nature, and the provision of multi-faceted, flexible, and secure environments, rather than mere physical presence. The developed framework can serve as an operational guide for designers and planners of children’s growth and learning spaces.

Comparative Evaluation and Determination of Design Priority Hierarchy in Biophilic Architecture of Traditional and Contemporary Housing (Case Study: Qom City)

Roxana Abdollahi ^* iD , Zahra Abbasi iD

The growing disconnect between humans and nature in contemporary residential environments, particularly as a result of the dominance of quantitative construction patterns, has led to a decline in the quality of living environments and a weakening of residents’ mental well-being. In this context, vernacular architecture based on biophilic principles has emerged as a human-centered and nature-oriented approach. This study aims to comparatively evaluate the components of biophilic architecture in traditional and contemporary housing patterns in the city of Qom and to determine design priorities based on the intensity of structural differences. The research adopts a descriptive–analytical method with a comparative approach, drawing on a combination of library research, documentary analysis, field studies, and a researcher-developed questionnaire. Accordingly, thirteen biophilic architecture components were identified and evaluated within the operational research model in selected examples of vernacular Qajar-era houses and contemporary residential complexes in Qom. Data were analyzed using non-parametric statistical tests in SPSS, and the Friedman test was employed to identify significant differences between the two periods.The findings indicate that in Qom’s vernacular housing, biophilic components—particularly natural lighting and ventilation, evolved human–nature relationships, environmental features, and sense of place—demonstrate a high level of realization, whereas these components have been significantly weakened in contemporary housing. The Friedman test results further show that components such as green spaces and courtyards, natural lighting, and ventilation have the greatest influence on enhancing the spatial quality of housing. The greatest degree of discontinuity between traditional and contemporary architecture was observed in the components of biodiversity and place-based relationships, with a significance level of P < 0.001. Based on this analysis, the biophilic components were classified into three levels: “critical,” “interactive,” and “physical stability.”The findings led to the development of a hierarchical pyramid of biophilic components, indicating that the primary priority for revitalizing biophilic architecture in contemporary housing should focus on “restoring biodiversity” and “strengthening place-based relationships.” This model can serve as a strategic guideline for architects in designing sustainable and biophilic housing.

The effect of partial-landscape of educational buildings on the vitality of students

pooria saadat ^* iD , Fatemeh rezaeiadriani iD

Educational buildings and universities are important settings for students’ daily interactions, personal development, and psychological well-being. Beyond providing physical space, these environments should function as a second home that fosters vitality, motivation, and social engagement. This study investigates the effects of façade color and skyline configurations on student vitality, encompassing happiness and positive emotions, attention and concentration, dynamism and attractiveness, and social interaction. Twenty-eight simulated façade images were developed based on four colors (gray, white, red, and cream) and seven skyline patterns. Students aged 18–30 familiar with the study context evaluated these images online. The Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture at Malayer University served as the case study. Its relatively traditional façade, conventional educational color palette, and simple architectural composition provided opportunities for visual modification. The study employed Delphi and descriptive-analytical methods, repeated-measures mean comparisons, Bonferroni post hoc tests, and graphical analyses using SPSS. The results indicated that warm, soft, and neutral colors, particularly white and cream, and convex skylines, including rounded and triangular forms, were associated with the highest vitality. Conversely, gray and red façades and concave or stepped skylines exhibited the lowest vitality among participants. These findings highlight the potential of façade design to enhance student vitality. Further research across diverse contexts, climates, and educational age groups could strengthen the generalizability of the findings. Given the prevalence of repetitive façade designs in educational buildings, this study addresses a notable research gap and offers preliminary guidance for educational facility managers, decision-makers, and consulting designers, particularly in renovation projects and the design of new educational buildings.

A Cross-Scale Rereading of the Linkage between House-Garden and Garden-City in the Historic Urban Fabric of Urmia: A Mixed-Methods Approach to Reconciling Vernacular Architecture and Urban Planning

Babak Motiei ^* iD

Historic Iranian cities are the product of an enduring nexus between humans, nature, and the built environment. In Urmia, this nexus is manifested in the house-garden as a unit of vernacular architecture and in the garden-city as a macro-scale model of urban landscape. However, the gap between vernacular architecture and contemporary urban planning has led the garden-city identity of Urmia into crisis and deteriorated its historic fabric. Previous studies have mostly focused on the internal structure of the house-garden, while its linkage to the urban fabric and its role in the continuity of garden-city identity have been less examined. The main question is: How can the linkage patterns between the house-garden and the garden-city in the historic fabric of Urmia be re-read, and what approach can be offered for reconciling vernacular architecture and urban planning? The research was conducted using a mixed-methods (qualitative-quantitative) approach. The qualitative phase involved interviews with 15 experts and led to the extraction of 54 codes, 12 axial categories, and 4 selective categories. The quantitative phase used a questionnaire with a reliability of 0.87 distributed among 80 participants, and data were analyzed through correlation and factor analysis. The findings showed that the physical structure of the house-gardens is stable (mean = 4.20), but the reconciliation of vernacular architecture and urban planning (2.50) and the continuity of garden-city identity (2.80) are weak. Garden-city identity had the strongest relationship with reconciliation (r = 0.67) and factor loading (β = 0.71). The proposed approach is three-layered: recognizing the geometry and hierarchy of the house-garden, redesigning access and visual axes based on the sharbagh pattern, and formulating macro-level regulations for institutionalizing vernacular architecture. This approach can serve as a model for other historic cities in Iran.

Expanding Problem Framing in Architectural Design Education through the Lens of the Production of Space (Case Study of a Stair-Design Exercise)

Ali Asgari ^* iD

This study examines an educational experience in Architectural Design I, in which a stair-design exercise for a faculty courtyard was linked to observations of everyday stair use and discussions of movement, pause, view, and presence. It aims to identify indications of expanded problem framing in students’ works and to examine how the relationships recognized by students were translated into architectural organization. Because complete pre- and post-intervention records were unavailable, the findings are interpreted descriptively and exploratorily and do not establish a causal effect of the educational experience. Using a qualitative case-study approach, the final works of twelve students were analyzed through direct observation of physical models, final boards, cross-case comparison, and contextual knowledge from sustained participation in teaching. As an independent assessment layer, seven academic evaluators reviewed model images using six components of spatial transformation. Findings showed that, to varying degrees, the projects moved beyond the stair as an access element and incorporated relationships among movement, level change, ground, context, pause, view, and potential settings for presence. The generative role of level change was among the clearest transformations, whereas the conversion of functional movement into spatial sequence was less consistent. Expanded problem framing did not necessarily correspond to an equal ability to translate it into architectural organization. Through Henri Lefebvre’s theory of the production of space, this transformation is interpreted not as a rejection of form or the realization of lived space, but as contextualized form-making and a shift from an isolated element toward a broader network of spatial relations. The findings highlight the importance of developing both recognition and architectural organization of spatial relations in introductory design education.

A Multiscale Morphological–Aerodynamic Framework for Urban Air Quality: Explaining the Mechanisms Linking Urban Form to Pollutant Transport and Human Exposure

Mohammadmehdi Moulaii ^* iD , Vajiheh Nouri iD

Urban air quality is shaped by complex interactions among pollutant emission loads, meteorological conditions, urban spatial structure, and human exposure patterns. Although numerous studies have investigated the influence of urban morphological characteristics on ventilation and pollutant dispersion, fragmented analytical scales, diverse evaluation indicators, and a focus on isolated variables have limited the development of an integrated understanding of how urban form affects air quality. This study aims to elucidate the mechanisms linking urban morphology, aerodynamic processes, pollutant transport, and human exposure by developing a multiscale framework for analysing the relationship between urban form and air quality. The research adopts an applied–developmental approach and employs an integrative literature review with a critical synthesis methodology. Evidence from theoretical studies, field measurements, statistical analyses, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations, spatial analyses, and remote sensing studies was systematically reviewed and synthesized across macro-, meso-, and micro-scales. The findings demonstrate that the effects of morphological attributes on air quality are neither linear nor independent; rather, they depend on the interactions among spatial scale, wind conditions, emission characteristics, urban configuration, and receptor location. Furthermore, ventilation-related indicators, such as airflow velocity and air exchange rate, cannot independently represent air quality performance, and reliable assessment requires simultaneous consideration of pollutant pathways, concentration distribution, and human exposure patterns. The proposed framework integrates the relationships among emission sources, transport mechanisms, environmental responses, and human exposure, providing a knowledge-based foundation for urban planning, morphological design, and evidence-informed air quality strategies.

Comparative study of global urban resilience frameworks and presentation of a context-based framework of resilience indicators for Iran

Narges Houresfand ^* iD , Ebrahim Molavi iD

Urban resilience has emerged as a fundamental concept in urban planning and management, aiming to increase the capacity of cities to anticipate, resist, adapt to, and recover from natural and human-induced hazards. Although several global resilience frameworks have been developed, their direct application across countries remains challenging due to differences in institutional, socio-economic, environmental, and spatial conditions. This study aimed to conduct a comparative study of global urban resilience frameworks and identify context-based resilience indicators appropriate for Iran. This applied research adopted a mixed-method approach. In the qualitative phase, urban resilience indicators were extracted from global resilience frameworks and scientific literature through directional content analysis and coded using MAXQDA software. In the quantitative phase, the extracted indicators were assessed by urban planning, urban resilience and crisis management experts and the data were analyzed using Cronbach’s, Friedman’s and Wilcoxon’s alpha tests in SPSS software. The findings identified ten main dimensions of urban resilience: physical, environmental, social, economic, risk management, infrastructure, institutional, governance, effectiveness and policy. The results also showed that physical and environmental resilience have the highest priority for Iran. Furthermore, the statistically significant difference between the perceived importance of global resilience indicators and their suitability for Iranian conditions highlights the need for contextual adaptation. The proposed framework integrates global resilience knowledge with local priorities and provides a context-based basis for assessing urban resilience, resilience-based planning and evidence-based urban policymaking in Iran.

An Analysis of the Evolution of Architectural Expression in Iran's World Expo Pavilions

Hamze Pirbabaei ^* iD , نسرین قربانی iD

https://doi.org/10.61838/lagdj.56

National pavilions at World Expos, as the primary architectural manifestations of nations on the international stage, play a pivotal role in representing national culture, identity, and capabilities. Despite extensive research on the history, symbolism, and architectural themes of these pavilions, the concept of “architectural expression” and its evolution over time has received limited attention, lacking a cohesive analytical framework. This study aims to delineate the dimensions of the “architectural expression” of Iranian pavilions and analyze their evolutionary trajectory in World Expos.

In the first phase, through a systematic literature review, initial dimensions of architectural expression were extracted and validated by experts in the fields of architecture and world exhibitions. A framework consisting of five dimensions was established: mode of reference, richness of references, focus of expression, coherence of expression, and orientation of expression. Subsequently, all Iranian pavilions at World Expos from 1873 to 2020 were coded, scored, and analyzed based on this framework.

The findings reveal three distinct patterns in the evolution of the architectural expression of Iranian pavilions: “predominance of reconstruction and formal expression,” “inception of synthesis and the pursuit of a transitional language,” and “conceptual reinterpretation and interactive expression.” Consequently, the architectural expression of Iranian pavilions has shifted over nearly a century and a half from direct, physical representation of Persian architecture toward conceptual, experience-oriented, and interactive expression; however, this evolution does not follow a linear or uniform trajectory. The results indicate that all five dimensions of architectural expression have undergone an evolutionary process, albeit at varying rates, with the most significant transformations observed in the mode of reference, focus of expression, and orientation of expression. The proposed framework serves as a versatile tool for the comparative analysis of architectural expression in other national pavilions and exhibition architecture.

Landscape Architecture and Garden Design Journal

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Comparative study of global urban resilience frameworks and presentation of a context-based framework of resilience indicators for Iran

A Cross-Scale Rereading of the Linkage between House-Garden and Garden-City in the Historic Urban Fabric of Urmia: A Mixed-Methods Approach to Reconciling Vernacular Architecture and Urban Planning

Comparative Evaluation and Determination of Design Priority Hierarchy in Biophilic Architecture of Traditional and Contemporary Housing (Case Study: Qom City)

A Multiscale Morphological–Aerodynamic Framework for Urban Air Quality: Explaining the Mechanisms Linking Urban Form to Pollutant Transport and Human Exposure

Identifying, Validating, and Prioritizing Environmental Factors Influencing Children’s Creativity: A Delphi–AHP Framework

Expanding Problem Framing in Architectural Design Education through the Lens of the Production of Space (Case Study of a Stair-Design Exercise)

The effect of partial-landscape of educational buildings on the vitality of students

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Identifying, Validating, and Prioritizing Environmental Factors Influencing Children’s Creativity: A Delphi–AHP Framework

Comparative Evaluation and Determination of Design Priority Hierarchy in Biophilic Architecture of Traditional and Contemporary Housing (Case Study: Qom City)

The effect of partial-landscape of educational buildings on the vitality of students

A Cross-Scale Rereading of the Linkage between House-Garden and Garden-City in the Historic Urban Fabric of Urmia: A Mixed-Methods Approach to Reconciling Vernacular Architecture and Urban Planning

Expanding Problem Framing in Architectural Design Education through the Lens of the Production of Space (Case Study of a Stair-Design Exercise)

A Multiscale Morphological–Aerodynamic Framework for Urban Air Quality: Explaining the Mechanisms Linking Urban Form to Pollutant Transport and Human Exposure

Comparative study of global urban resilience frameworks and presentation of a context-based framework of resilience indicators for Iran

An Analysis of the Evolution of Architectural Expression in Iran's World Expo Pavilions